Lead
Element 82 · chemical symbol: Pb
These Vrulum profiles mention Lead by name. Read each profile for its specific context; a mention alone does not establish composition, performance or use of the pure element.
For periodic-table data and other properties, consult the Royal Society of Chemistry periodic table.
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AI weather forecasting
Machine-learning weather models such as GraphCast, GenCast and ECMWF's AIFS produce global forecasts in minutes. In published and operational tests they match or beat leading physics-based systems on many headline measures, but they still struggle with small-scale detail, the early growth of forecast error and physical consistency.
Artificial photosynthesis
Artificial leaves are devices that use sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen in one integrated unit. Laboratory modules have reached about 11% solar-to-hydrogen efficiency under one-sun illumination, but durability and outdoor performance at useful scale have not yet been shown.
Catalytic converters
A catalytic converter is a device in a petrol car's exhaust that uses a catalyst to turn carbon monoxide, unburnt fuel and nitrogen oxides into less harmful gases. It has been fitted to new petrol cars in the United States since the mid-1970s, and it depends on lead-free petrol.
Fusion energy
Fusion energy joins light atoms to release energy, the process that powers the Sun. Laser experiments at the US National Ignition Facility have produced more fusion energy than the laser energy delivered to the target, and magnetic machines have set energy records. No fusion plant yet supplies net electricity to a grid.
In vivo gene editing
In vivo gene editing delivers editing machinery into the body so that it changes DNA inside a person's own cells. A phase 3 trial of an investigational in vivo CRISPR treatment and a phase 1 base-editing study now report clinical results. The approach has so far been tested on only a few gene targets, and the phase 1 base-editing study delivers its editor to the liver.
Laser and robotic weeding
Robots that weed with lasers, targeted sprays or mechanical tools aim to reduce the blanket herbicide applied to crops. Field trials show strong weed control from lasers on young weeds and substantial herbicide savings from targeted spraying in some trials, but the savings depend heavily on weed pressure and the independent evidence is still thin.
Lead-acid batteries
Lead-acid batteries store electricity in a reversible chemical reaction between lead-based plates in dilute sulphuric acid. Gaston Planté built the first practical rechargeable version in 1859, and the design was later used to start petrol engines and power car lighting.
Satellite methane detection
Satellites can spot methane plumes from large leaks at oil, gas, coal and landfill sites. Detection limits depend on instrument design, wind and surface conditions, and the sources reviewed here do not show how often detections lead to repairs.
Spinal cord stimulation for paralysis
Electrical stimulation of the spinal cord can help some people with spinal cord injury move again. Implanted epidural systems have restored walking and trunk control in very small research cohorts. A non-invasive system called ARCEX was studied in a 65-person trial, and its maker states that it is FDA cleared to improve hand sensation and strength in people with incomplete cervical spinal cord injuries.
Vulcanised rubber and pneumatic tyres
Vulcanisation, a process that heats rubber with sulphur, was patented by Charles Goodyear in 1844. Air-filled rubber tyres were patented by Robert William Thomson in the 1840s, and John Boyd Dunlop made a practical air-filled tyre in 1888.