Electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft

In plain language

An electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft takes off and lands straight up, like a helicopter, but uses several electric motors and batteries instead of a fuel engine. Many designs tilt their rotors or wings so they can fly forwards like an aeroplane once they are in the air. The idea is short trips between city centres, airports and other urban sites, often called air taxis.

The hard part is the battery. Lifting an aircraft straight up needs a lot of power, and the battery has to hold enough energy for the trip plus a safety reserve. Companies also need an aviation regulator to certify that the aircraft is safe to carry passengers. Joby Aviation says its test aircraft are in the final stage of that process, but the sources reviewed for this profile do not confirm that any regulator has yet issued a type certificate.

Technical explanation

eVTOL designs cover several layouts, including multirotor, lift-plus-cruise, tilt-rotor and tilt-wing configurations. Vertical flight is energy-intensive, so battery energy density and power output are the main constraints on range and payload. Fredericks and colleagues (2018) set out the battery performance metrics that would be needed to electrify VTOL aircraft, published in ACS Energy Letters.

Energy management is a safety issue as well as a range issue. NASA researchers presented eight concepts for recharging or boosting the energy state of eVTOL aircraft that run low on charge, for example after strong winds during an approach. The concepts are at a preliminary research stage and target roughly 2045, and the abstract does not report test results. A 2025 paper in Heliyon by Hu, Yan and Yuan examines the development and challenges of autonomous eVTOL aircraft.

Certification is the other gate. Joby Aviation's announcement of 6 November 2025 describes its Type Inspection Authorization testing as part of the final stage of FAA type certification, with the FAA using that test data for its decision. Archer Aviation and NASA signed a Space Act Agreement in January 2024 under which NASA will test the battery system design for Archer's Midnight aircraft. Both sets of results are company-reported and have not been independently verified.

What the evidence says

Each statement is typed by the strength of its evidence and linked to the source that supports it.

Limitations and open problems

• No eVTOL type certificate is confirmed in the sources reviewed. In November 2025 Joby described its aircraft as entering the final stage of FAA type certification.
• Battery energy density and power are central constraints. Fredericks and colleagues (2018) set out the metrics needed for electric VTOL flight, but the sources reviewed do not confirm that current cells meet them.
• Low-charge emergencies, such as strong headwinds on approach, are a safety concern. NASA's energy augmentation concepts are at a preliminary research stage.
• Most performance and schedule claims come from company announcements, which have not been independently verified for this profile.
• Regulatory rules for powered-lift aircraft were not checked against a primary regulator document for this profile, so the certification route is not described in detail.
• Noise, operating cost, charging infrastructure and public acceptance are not covered by the sources reviewed here.

Possible future uses

Timeline

1. 2018Fredericks and colleagues publish battery performance metrics needed to electrify VTOL aircraft in ACS Energy Letters. Sources: [1]
2. 30 Jan 2023NASA authors present eight energy augmentation concepts for electric VTOL aircraft at the AIAA SciTech Forum. Sources: [2]
3. 22 Jan 2024Archer Aviation and NASA sign a Space Act Agreement to test the battery system design for the Midnight aircraft. Sources: [3]
4. Jan 2025Hu, Yan and Yuan's paper on autonomous eVTOL aircraft development and challenges appears in Heliyon. Sources: [4]
5. 6 Nov 2025Joby Aviation announces power-on testing of its first FAA-conforming aircraft, entering the final stage of type certification. Sources: [5]

Futures this could help bring about

How far away?

Flying taxis in cities

Pilots · 3 of 7 steps done

Glossary

eVTOL

Electric vertical take-off and landing: an aircraft that takes off and lands vertically using electric propulsion.

Type certificate

An approval from an aviation regulator confirming that an aircraft design meets its safety rules.

Type Inspection Authorization (TIA)

An FAA process whose test data, according to Joby Aviation, the FAA will use in its type certification decision.

Specific energy

The amount of energy a battery stores per kilogram of its mass, usually given in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg).

Sources

1. peer reviewed paper
   Performance Metrics Required of Next-Generation Batteries to Electrify Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) Aircraft
   William L. Fredericks. ACS Energy Letters, 2018. DOI: 10.1021/acsenergylett.8b02195. Accessed 21 Oct 2026.
2. conference paper
   Energy Augmentation Concepts for Advanced Airspace Mobility Vehicles
   Kapil Sheth, Nhan Nguyen, Todd Stinchfield et al.. NASA Technical Reports Server (AIAA SciTech Forum 2023), 30 Jan 2023. Accessed 21 Oct 2026.
3. company announcement
   Archer Aviation and NASA Sign Space Act Agreement To Collaborate on Mission-Critical eVTOL Aircraft Technologies
   Archer Aviation (investor relations), 22 Jan 2024. Accessed 21 Oct 2026.
4. peer reviewed paper
   Development and challenges of autonomous electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft
   Lijuan Hu, Xufei Yan, Ye Yuan. Heliyon (Cell Press), Jan 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e41055. Accessed 21 Oct 2026.
5. company announcement
   Joby Begins Power-On Testing of First Conforming Aircraft, Enters Final Stage of Type Certification Process
   Joby Aviation, 6 Nov 2025. Accessed 21 Oct 2026.

Revision history

3 changes since this profile was created.